Being a social animal much like our closest ape relatives, the chimpanzee and the bonobo (see article on the bonobos in this issue), prehistoric humans most likely lived in hordes. The development of language and later social traditions would require this. The human sexual impulse is inherently polygamous, i.e. drawn to many, and exogamous, i.e., drawn to the unfamiliar. However, in isolated primitive hordes, endogomy or inbreeding or incest occurred until human groups learned how to interact. Initial reasons for the preference for exogamy when possible were likely either genetic programming (as seen in apes) or social reasons. These latter include the need for sexual variety and novelty, i.e., humans habituate to those people they regularly see day to day. Also, if the older males dominated the females, the younger ones might be forced to look wherever they could to find females.

Eventually, an important phase occurred. Isolated hordes began to relate to each other and exogamy predominated. Kinship groups or tribes developed, each with a strong identity and a symbolic totem. A totem is a symbolic plant or animal vested with mythological and spiritual significance. At first, in the early kinship phase, which existed before the development of agriculture but after the discovery of fire, marriages likely occurred within the social structure of the clan or tribe. No distinct isolated family units existed. Evidence for this epoch and subsequent prehistoric one comes from studies of isolated indigenous peoples during the nineteenth century. Although the conclusions from this type of inductive reasoning must remain hypothetical, the lifestyles of many indigenous peoples throughout the world lend credence to these ideas. It appears that marriage in this early kinship phase represented pure economic exploitation of women. They would stay home and guard the fires and raise the children while the men were out hunting. There is rigid division of labor in this phase, with men dominating, usually brutally, while the women were their slaves. In this phase, the men were organized and bonded, the women were not. Likely representing this phase of social organization were the Australian Aborigines, Eskimos, Hill-Veddahs, Bushmen, Andamanese, Fuegians and Tasmanians.

With the development of agriculture about ten thousand years ago, a remarkable change occurred in human societies. This period, characterized as the full kinship or tribal phase, is highlighted by the high position of women. In fact, women were organized and dominated tribal life. In this phase, womens' collective position was the best at anv stage of human cultural development, including modern times. With the development of agriculture, women attached themselves to the soil, while men continued to hunt. Women produced and maintained the staple foods of the tribe. The women owned both the fields and the crops produced. They became highly organized in the kinship groups, dominating them. These matriarchal clans dissolved marriage in its earliest form giving women more freedom, status and authority. The tribe predominates in matriarchy while marriage and family are insignificant. People identify themselves as belonging to their mother's tribe. A husband remains with his own tribe and a wife with hers. He must win her and keep her by ongoing service- hunting or helping clear the fields. The women can decide on forming and ending marriages. The husband will visit his wife's home at times and spend the night with her. The children produced are the wife's, never his.

Examples of matriarchal clans were widespread throughout the world, persisting into modern times. Many of the North American indigenous tribes were matriarchal. Among the Iroquois, the women only tilled the soil (with primitive hoes). They controlled the food supply, cooked the food, tended the children and made the clothing for the tribe. The men helped agriculturally only by clearing new ground. They also hunted, fished, made weapons and went to war. Marriages were generally arranged by the mothers and chief women. The husband only visited his wife's home (lodge or long house) occasionally. He was obligated to bring game or fish, and if he did not, she could divorce him. Married couples had the right to divorce whenever they wished to. Generally, if they had children, this was discouraged by the tribe. The women also dominated the ruling council. The women decided on war and peace and the disposition of prisoners. Inheritances were strictly passed from women to their children.

Other North American indigenous matriarchal tribes included the Wyandots, Narragansetts, Winnebegs, Creeks, Potawattamis and Pueblos. Some South American, Caribbean, East African, Southeast Asian and Pacific Island tribes had matriarchal organization as well.

Over time, men began to develop crafts and commerce with other tribes. Some were able to accumulate wealth. These men no longer had to serve to attain a wife. They could purchase one, or more than one if their means permitted. This is probably how matriarchy gave way to patriarchy. Men not only ruled women, but the wealthiest men ruled society- i.e. the State was established. These men-rulers also subjugated other men, who became their slaves. The "State," or ruling men, became concerned primarily with war: conquering other peoples, securing both their wealth and servitude. Over time, the development of international commerce and larger scale production of goods as well as the creation of currencies or money to replace barter was the early phase of capitalism. The family, which had been the unit of production of goods through hard labor and largely self-sufficient was replaced gradually by capital, i.e., money which was invested in resources and in slaves organized to produce products en masse and more cheaply. Wealth itself produced more wealth. The means of production were controlled not by those who produced the goods, but by those who controlled the wealth, resources and the labor of others. This state of affairs had a profound effect on the dissolution of the patriarchal family phase, particularly with the development of the Industrial Revolution.

In the next article, I shall trace how these dramatic changes in society have and continue to transform modern family structure and relationships between the sexes.

(2) F. Muller-Lyer, The Evolution of Modern Marriage, New York, Alfred Knopf, 1930.

(4) Westermarck, Edward, The History of Human Marriage, Macmillan and Co., Limited, London, 1903.